Warlord Era
The Warlord Era (1916 – 1928) was a period in the when control of the country was divided among former of the and other regional factions, which were spread across the regions of , , , , , , , , and . In , the era began when died in 1916, and lasted until 1928 when the Nationalist (KMT) officially through the , marking the beginning of the . Several of the warlords continued to maintain their influence through the 1930s and the 1940s, which was problematic for the Nationalist government during both the and . This era was characterized by constant military conflicts between different factions, and the largest conflict was the which involved more than one million soldiers. Terminology Early in the 20th century the term was adopted in China as "Jun Fa" ( ) to describe the aftermath of the 1911 and , when regional commanders led their s to battle the state and competing commanders for control over territory, launching the period that would come to be known in China as the modern Warlord Era. The term "Jun Fa" is now applied retroactively to describe the leaders of regional private armies who, throughout China's history, threatened or used violence to expand their political rule over additional territories, including those who rose to lead and unify kingdoms. Origins in training}} The origins of the armies and leaders which dominated politics after 1912 lay in the of the late . During the (1850–64), the Qing dynasty was forced to allow provincial governors to raise their own armies, the , to fight against the Taiping rebels; many of these provincial forces were not disbanded after the Taiping rebellion was over, like ’s . Strong bonding, family ties and respectful treatment of troops were emphasized. The officers were never rotated, and the soldiers were handpicked by their commanders, and commanders by their generals, so personal bonds of loyalty formed between local officers and the troops, unlike and . These late Qing reforms did not establish a national army but instead they mobilized regional armies and s that had neither standardization nor consistency. Officers were loyal to their superiors and formed cliques based upon their place of origins and background. Units were composed of men from the same province. This policy was meant to reduce dialectal miscommunication, but had the side effect of encouraging regionalistic tendencies. Although the post-Taiping Rebellion governors are generally not recognised as the direct predecessors of the warlords, their combined military-civil authority and somewhat greater powers as compared to earlier governors provided a model for Republic-era provincial leaders. The fragmentation of military power due to the Late Qing's lack of a unified military force, exacerbated by the rise of provincialism during the revolution, was also a strong factor behind the proliferation of warlords. Apart from administrative and financial obstacles, the late Qing government seemed to have relied on this divided military structure to maintain political control. The was swept aside by the rising necessity of military professionalism, with scholars becoming heavily militarized, and many officers from non-scholarly backgrounds rising to high command and even high office in civil bureaucracy. At this time, the military upstaged the . Influenced by German and Japanese ideas of military predominance over the nation, coupled with the absence of national unity amongst the various cliques in the officer class, led to the fragmentation of power in the warlord era. The most powerful regional army was the northern-based under , which received the best in training and modern weaponry. The in 1911 brought widespread across southern China. The revolution began in October 1911 with the . Soldiers once loyal to the Qing government began to defect to the opposition. These revolutionary forces established a provisional government in the following year under Dr. , who had returned from his long exile to lead the revolution. It became clear that the revolutionaries were not strong enough to defeat the and continued fighting would almost certainly lead to defeat. Instead, Sun negotiated with Beiyang commander Yuan Shikai to bring an end to the Qing and reunify China. In return, Sun would hand over his presidency and recommend Yuan to be the president of the new republic. Yuan refused to move to and insisted on maintaining the capital in , where his power base was secure. Reacting to Yuan's growing , the southern provinces rebelled in 1913 but were effectively crushed by Beiyang forces. Civil governors were replaced by . In December 1915 Yuan made clear his intentions to become and found a . The southern provinces rebelled again in the ; but this time the situation was far more serious because most Beiyang commanders refused to recognize the monarchy. Yuan renounced his plans for restoring the monarchy to woo back his lieutenants, but by the time he died in June 1916 China was fractured politically. The would persist throughout the entire Warlord Era. Warlord political system cut back on many government institutions in the beginning of 1914 by suspending parliament, followed by the provincial assemblies. His cabinet soon resigned, effectively making Yuan dictator of China. After curtailed many basic freedoms, the country quickly spiraled into chaos and entered a period of warlordism. "Warlordism did not substitute military force for the other elements of government; it merely balanced them differently. This shift in balance came partly from the disintegration of the sanctions and values of China's traditional civil government." In other words, during the warlord era, there was a characteristic shift from a state-dominated civil bureaucracy held by a central authority to a military-dominated culture held by many groups, with power shifting from warlord to warlord. A notable theme of warlordism is identified by C. Martin Wilbur. "He pointed out that a great majority of regional militarists were 'static', that is to say that their principal aim was to secure and maintain control of a particular tract of territory." Warlords, in the words of American political scientist , were "instinctively suspicious, quick to suspect that their interests might be threatened, hard-headed, devoted to the short run and impervious to idealistic abstractions". These Chinese warlords usually came from strict military background, and were brutal in their treatment toward both their soldiers and the general population. In 1921, the reported that in the province, prevalence of robbery and violent crimes were serious and frightened the farmers. of the clique was known for suppressing strikes by railroad workers by terrorizing them with execution. A British diplomat in province witnessed two mutineers being publicly hacked to death with their hearts and livers hung out; another two being publicly burned to death; while others had slits cut into their bodies into which were inserted burning candles before they were hacked to pieces. (left) and (right), two of the most powerful of the Warlord Era }} Warlords placed great stress on personal loyalty, yet subordinate officers often betrayed their commanders in exchange for bribes known as "silver bullets", and warlords often betrayed allies. Promotion had little to do with competence, and instead warlords attempted to create an interlocking network of familial, institutional, regional, and master-pupil relationships together with membership in sworn brotherhoods and secret societies. Subordinates who betrayed their commanders could suffer harshly. In November 1925 , the leading general loyal to Marshal —the "Old Marshal" of Manchuria—made a deal with to revolt, which nearly toppled the "Old Marshal", who had to promise his rebel soldiers a pay increase; that, together with signs that the Japanese still supported Zhang, caused them to go back on their loyalty to him. Guo and his wife were both publicly shot and their bodies left to hang for three days in a marketplace in . After Feng betrayed his ally Wu to seize Beijing for himself, Wu complained that China was "a country without a system; anarchy and treason prevail everywhere. Betraying one's leader has become as natural as eating one's breakfast ..." "Alignment politics" prevented any one warlord from dominating the system. When one warlord started to become too powerful, the rest would ally to stop him, then turn on each other. The level of violence in the first years was restrained, as no leader wanted to engage in too much serious fighting. War brought the risk of damage to one's own forces. For example, when defeated the army of Marshal Zhang Zuolin, the "Old Marshal" of Manchuria, he provided two trains to take his defeated enemies home, knowing that if in the future Zhang were to defeat him, he could count on the same courtesy. Furthermore, none of the warlords had the economic capacity or the logistical strength to inflict a decisive knockout blow; the most they could hope for was to gain some territory. None could conquer the whole country and impose a central authority. However, as the 1920s went on, the violence became increasingly intense and savage as the object was to damage the enemy and improve one's bargaining power within the "alignment politics". As the infrastructure in China was very poor, control of the railway lines and rolling stock were crucial in maintaining the . were the fastest and cheapest way of moving large number of troops, and most battles during this era were fought within a short distance of railways. In 1925, it was estimated that 70% of the locomotives on the railway lines connecting and Beijing, and 50% of the locomotives on the lines connecting Beijing and Mukden were being used for mobilizing troops and supplies. Armored trains, full of machine guns and artillery, offered fire support for troops going into battle. The constant fighting around the railroads caused much economic harm. In 1925 at least 50% of the locomotives being used on the line connecting Nanjing and Shanghai had been destroyed, with the soldiers of one warlord using 300 freight cars as sleeping quarters, all inconveniently parked directly on the rail line. To hinder pursuit, defeated troops tore up the railroads as they retreated, causing in 1924 alone damage worth 100 million silver (the Mexican silver dollar was the main currency used in China at the time). Between 1925 and 1927 fighting in eastern and southern China caused non-military railroad traffic to decline by 25%, raising the prices of goods and causing inventory to build up at warehouses. Warlord profiles Few of the warlords had any sort of ideology. , the "Model Governor" of , professed a creed that merged elements of , militarism, , , socialism, communism, imperialism, , , and Confucian into one. A friend described Yan as "a dark-skinned, mustached man of medium height who rarely laughed and maintained an attitude of great reserve Yan never showed his inner feelings." He kept on a different from the rest of China to make it difficult to invade his province, though that tactic also hindered the export of coal and iron; the main source of Shanxi's wealth. , the "Christian General", promoted together with a vague sort of left-leaning , which led the to support him for a time. He banned alcohol, lived simply and wore the common uniform of an infantryman to show his concern for his men. , the "Philosopher General", was a who passed the , billing himself as the protector of , usually appearing in photographs with the scholar's brush in his hand (the scholar's brush is a symbol of Confucian culture). Doubters noted, however, that the quality of Wu's markedly declined when his secretary died. Wu liked to appear in photos taken in his office with a portrait of his hero in the background to reflect the supposed democratic militarism he was attempting to bring to China. Wu was famous for his capacity to absorb vast quantities of alcohol and still keep drinking. When he sent Feng a bottle of brandy, Feng replied by sending him a bottle of water, a message that Wu failed to take in. An intense Chinese nationalist, refused to enter the foreign concessions in China, a stance that was to cost him his life when he refused to go to the International Settlement or the for medical treatment. , one of the most infamous Chinese warlords }} More typical was Marshal , a graduate of the "University of the Green Forest" (i.e., a bandit), an illiterate who had a forceful, ambitious personality that allowed him to rise up from the leader of a bandit gang, be hired by the Japanese to attack the Russians during the of 1904-05 and become the warlord of Manchuria by 1916. He worked openly for the Japanese in ruling Manchuria. Zhang controlled only 3% of China's population but 90% of its heavy industry. The wealth of Manchuria, the support of the Japanese and Zhang's hard-hitting, swift-moving cavalry made him the most powerful of the warlords. His Japanese patrons insisted that he ensure a stable economic climate to facilitate Japanese investment, making him one of the few warlords who sought to pursue economic growth instead of just plundering. , known as the "Dogmeat General" because of his love for the gambling game of that name, was described as having "the physique of an elephant, the brain of a pig and the temperament of a tiger". Writer called Zhang "the most colorful, legendary, medieval, and unashamed ruler of modern China". Former remembered Zhang as "a universally detested monster" whose ugly, bloated face was "tinged with the livid hue induced by heavy opium smoking". A brutal man, Zhang was notorious for his hobby of smashing in the heads of prisoners with his sword, which he called "smashing melons". He loved to , which become part of his legend. He was widely believed to be the most man in China, nicknamed "General Eighty-Six" as his penis when erect was said to measure up to a pile of 86 Mexican silver dollars. His consisted of Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Russian and two French women. He gave them numbers, as he could not remember their names, and then usually forgot the numbers. Other notable information on some of the above mentioned major warlords: # "Warlord of Manchuria" became Japan's ally against Russia during the war. He had also served as the military governor of Mukden since 1911. # was originally trained as a Confucian scholar, but later received Japanese military training at the . He was thought by many Chinese and British observers to be a stabilizing force in Central China. # was a soldier since childhood and like Wu, was a graduate of Paoting. He was baptized by a leading in 1913; He was known as the "Christian General" as he encouraged his troops pursue Christianity. He seized Peking in 1924 and demonstrated how easily a major Chinese city could be overthrown. The great ideological flexibility of warlords and politicians during this era can be well exemplified in the activities of , an important bandit leader. Even though he initially fought in support of the with ultraconservative monarchists as well as warlords, Bai Lang later formed an alliance with republicans, declared himself loyal to Dr. and formed a "Citizen's Punitive Army" to rid China of all the warlords. Warlord armies }} Many of the common soldiers in warlord armies were also who took up service for a campaign and then reverted to banditry when the campaign was over. One politician remarked that when the warlords went to war with each other, the bandits become soldiers and when the war ended, the soldiers became bandits. Warlord armies commonly or took many women into . The system of looting was institutionalized, as many warlords lacked the money to pay their troops. Some took to kidnapping, and might send a hostage's severed fingers along with the ransom demand as a way of encouraging prompt payment. sometime in the 1920s. Some warlord armies, especially those in southern China, were badly armed, paid and supplied, and often lacked even basic necessities, such as guns, ammunition, and food. }} Besides bandits, the rank-and-file of the warlord armies tended to be village . They might take service in one army, get captured, then join the army of their captors before being captured yet again. Warlords usually incorporated their prisoners into their armies; at least 200,000 men who were serving in the army of Gen. Wu were prisoners he had incorporated into his own army. A survey of one warlord garrison in 1924 revealed that 90% of the soldiers were . In 1926 U.S. Army officer inspected a warlord unit and observed that 20% were less than 4.5 feet tall, the and most walked barefoot. Stilwell wrote that this "scarecrow company" was worthless as a military unit. A British army visitor commented that, provided they had proper leadership, the men of northern China were "the finest Oriental raw material with a physique second to none, and an iron constitution". However, such units were the exception rather than the rule. Finances with two of his sons, both wearing expensive miniature uniforms }} In 1916 there were about a half-million soldiers in China. By 1922 the numbers had tripled, then tripled again by 1924; more than the warlords could support. For example, Marshal Zhang, the ruler of industrialized Manchuria, took in $23 million in tax revenues in 1925 while spending some $51 million. Warlords in other provinces were even more hard-pressed. One way of raising funds were taxes called lijin that were often confiscatory and inflicted much economic harm. For example, in Sichuan province there were 27 different taxes on salt, and one shipload of paper that was sent down the Yangtze River to Shanghai was taxed 11 different times by various warlords to the sum total of 160% of its value. One warlord imposed a tax of 100% on railroad freight, including food, even though there was a famine in his province. Taxes owed to the central government in Beijing on stamp and salt were usually taken by regional authorities. Despite all of the wealth of Manchuria and the support of the Japanese army, Marshal Zhang had to raise land taxes by 12% between 1922 and 1928 to pay for his wars. The warlords demanded loans from the banks. The other major revenue source besides taxes, loans and looting was the selling of , with the warlords selling the rights to grow and sell opium within their provinces to consortia of gangsters. Despite his ostensible anti-opium stance, Gen. , "the Christian General", took in some $20 million per annum from opium sales. Inflation was another means of paying for their soldiers. Some warlords simply ran the money printing presses, and some resorted to duplicating machines to issue new Chinese dollars. The warlord who ruled province printed 22 million Chinese dollars on a silver reserve worth only one million Chinese dollars in the course of a single year, while Zhang in Shandong province printed 55 million Chinese dollars on a silver reserve of 1.5 million Chinese dollars during the same year. The illiterate Marshal , who engaged in reckless printing of Chinese dollars, did not understand it was him who was causing the inflation in Manchuria, and his remedy was simply to summon the leading merchants of Mukden, accuse them of greed because they were always raising their prices, had five of them selected at random publicly shot and told the rest to behave better. of the Fengtian clique during Northern Expedition}} Despite their constant need for money, the warlords lived in luxury. Marshal Zhang owned the world's biggest pearl, while Gen. Wu owned the world's biggest diamond. Marshal Zhang, the "Old Marshal", lived in a lavish palace in with his five wives, old Confucian texts and a cellar full of fine s, and needed 70 cooks in his kitchen to make enough food for him, his wives and his guests. Gen. Zhang, the "Dogmeat General", ate his meals off a 40-piece Belgian dinner service, and an American journalist described dinner with him: "He gave a dinner for me where sinful quantities of costly foods were served in a starving country. There was French champagne and sound brandy". Equipment The warlords bought machine guns and artillery from abroad, but their uneducated and illiterate soldiers could not operate or service them. A British mercenary complained in 1923 that had about 45 European artillery pieces that were inoperable because they had not been properly maintained. At the , the army of Gen. , which had seized , was attacked by a Russian-Mongol army under the command of Gen. Baron . The Chinese might have stopped Ungern had they been capable of firing their machine guns properly, to adjust for the inevitable upward jerk caused by the firing; they did not, and this caused the bullets to overshoot their targets. The inability to use their machine guns properly proved costly: after taking Urga in February 1921, Ungern had his and hunt down the remnants of Xu's troops as they attempted to flee south on the road back to China. Other forces Because their soldiers were not able to use or take proper care of modern weapons, the warlords often hired foreign , who were effective but always open to other offers. who fled to China after the victory of the Bolsheviks were widely employed. The Russian mercenaries, according to one reporter, went through the Chinese troops like a knife through butter. The most highly paid of the Russian units was led by Gen. , who fought for , the "Dogmeat General" who ruled Shandong province. Nechaev and his men were much feared. In 1926 they drove three armored trains through the countryside, gunning down everyone they met and taking everything moveable. The rampage was stopped only when the peasants pulled up the train tracks, which led Nechaev to sack the nearest town. To defend themselves from the attacks of the warlord factions and armies, s organized themselves into militant and village associations which served as militias as well as vigilante groups. As the peasants usually had neither money for guns nor military training, these secret societies relied on martial arts, self-made weapons such as swords and spears, as well as the staunch belief in protective magic. The latter was especially important, as the conviction of invulnerability was "a powerful weapon for bolstering the resolve of people who possessed few alternative resources with which to defend their meager holdings". Magical rituals practiced by the peasants ranged from rather simple ones, such as swallowing charms, to much more elaborate practices. For example, elements of the performed secret ceremonies to confer invulnerability from bullets to channel the power of and went into battle naked with supposedly bulletproof red clay smeared over their bodies. The Mourning Clothes Society would perform three s and weep loudly before each battle. There were also all-female self-defense groups, such as the Iron Gate Society or the Flower Basket Society. The former would dress entirely in white (the color of death in China) and waved fans that they believed would deflect gunfire, while the latter fought with a sword and a magical basket to catch their opponents bullets. Disappointed with the and despairing due to the warlords deprivations, many peasant secret societies adopted beliefs, and advocated the restoration of the monarchy, led by the old . The past was widely romanticized, and many believed that a Ming emperor would bring a "reign of happiness and justice for all". Factions Northern factions * * * * * * * Southern factions * * * warlords * * * warlords * * warlords North flag.}} The death of Yuan Shikai split the Beiyang Army into two main factions. The and were in alliance with one another, while the formed their own faction. International recognition was based on the presence in Beijing, and every Beiyang clique tried to assert their dominance over the capital to claim legitimacy. Duan Qirui and Anhui dominance (1916–20) While replaced Yuan Shikai as the President after his death, the political power was in the hands of Premier . The government worked closely with the Zhili clique, led by Vice President Feng Guozhang, to maintain stability in the capital. Continuing military influence over the led to provinces around the country refusing to declare their allegiance. The debate between the President and the Premier on whether or not China should participate in the First World War was followed by political unrest in Beijing. Both Li and Duan asked Beiyang general , stationed in Anhui, to militarily intervene in Beijing. As Zhang marched into Beijing on 1 July, he quickly dissolved the parliament and proclaimed a . The new government quickly fell to Duan after he returned to Beijing with reinforcements from Tianjin. As another government formed in Beijing, Duan's fundamental disagreements over national issues with the new President Feng Guozhang led to Duan's resignation in 1918. The Zhili clique forged an alliance with the , led by , and defeated Duan in the critical in July 1920. Cao Kun and Zhili dominance (1920–24) After the death of Feng Guozhang in 1919, the Zhili clique was led by . The alliance with the Fengtian was only one of convenience and war broke out in 1922 (the ), with Zhili driving Fengtian forces back to . Next, they wanted to bolster their legitimacy and reunify the country by returning Li Yuanhong to the presidency and restoring the . They proposed that and resign their rival presidencies simultaneously in favor of Li. When Sun issued strict stipulations that the Zhili couldn't stomach, they caused the defection of KMT Gen. by recognizing him as governor of . With Sun driven out of , the Zhili clique superficially restored the constitutional government that existed prior to Zhang Xun's coup. Cao bought the presidency in 1923 despite opposition by the KMT, Fengtian, Anhui remnants, some of his lieutenants and the public. In the autumn of 1924 the Zhili appeared to be on the verge of complete victory in the until betrayed the clique, and imprisoned Cao. Zhili forces were routed from the north but kept the center. Zhang Zuolin and Fengtian (1924–28) During the , changed his support from Zhili to Fengtian and forced the which resulted in being imprisoned. Feng soon broke off from the Zhili clique again and formed and allied himself with . In 1926, Wu Peifu from the Zhili clique launched the . Zhang Zuolin took advantage of the situation, and entered from the Northeast and captured Beijing. The Fengtian clique remained in control of the capital until the led by 's forced Zhang out of power in June 1928. South }} The southern provinces of China were notably against the Beiyang government in the north, having resisted the restoration of monarchy by Yuan Shikai and the subsequent government in Peking after his death. along with other southern leaders had formed a government in to resist the rule of the Beiyang warlords, and the Guangzhou government came to be known as part of the . Sun Yat-sen and "Constitutional protection" military junta in Guangzhou (1917–22) In September Sun was named generalissimo of the military government with the purpose of protecting the . The southern warlords assisted his regime solely to legitimize their fiefdoms and challenge Beijing. In a bid for international recognition, they also declared war against the but failed to garner any recognition. In July 1918 southern militarists thought Sun was given too much power and forced him to join a governing committee. Continual interference forced Sun into self-imposed exile. While away, he recreated the , or Kuomintang. With the help of KMT Gen. , committee members Gen. , Adm. and Gen. were expelled in the 1920 . In May 1921 Sun was elected "extraordinary president" by a rump parliament despite protests by Chen and , who complained of its . Tang left while Chen plotted with the Zhili clique to overthrow Sun in June 1922 in return for recognition of his governorship over Guangdong. Reorganization of military junta in Guangzhou (1923–25) After Chen was driven out of Guangzhou, Sun returned again to assume leadership in March 1923. The party was reorganized along , and the alliance with the came to be known as . The Guangzhou government focused on training new officers through the newly created . In 1924, the Zhilii clique fell out of power, and Sun travelled to Beiping to negotiate terms of reunification with leaders from , Fengtian and Anhui clique. He was unable to secure the terms as he died in March 1925 from illness. Power struggles within the KMT ensued after the death of Sun. The broke out as tried to claim party leadership. In the north, there were led by Guominjun against Fengtian-Zhili alliance from November 1925 to April 1926. The defeat of Guominjun ended their reign in Beiping. Reunification emerged as the protégé of Sun Yat-sen following the . In the summer of 1926, Chiang and the (NRA) began the with the hopes to reunify China. and of the Zhili clique were subsequently defeated in central and eastern China. In response to the situation, the Guominjun and of formed an alliance with Chiang to attack the Fengtian clique together. In 1927, Chiang initiated a of Communists in the Kuomintang, which marked the end of the . Though Chiang had consolidated the power of the KMT in Nanking, it was still necessary to capture (Beijing) to claim the legitimacy needed for . Yan Xishan moved in and captured Beiping on behalf of his new allegiance after the in 1928. His successor, , of the KMT leadership, and the Northern Expedition officially concluded. , several warlords attempted to overthrow 's newly formed . Despite the defeat of the anti- forces, warlords continued to remain in power in much of China until the 1940s.}} The politics of the of Kuomintang leadership over China were deeply shaped by the compromises with warlords that had allowed the victory of the Northern expedition. Most provincial leaders were military commanders who joined the party only during the expedition itself, when the warlords and their administrators were absorbed wholesale by Chiang. Although dictatorial, Chiang did not have absolute power as party rivals and local warlords posed a constant challenge. Despite the reunification, there were still ongoing conflicts across the country. Remaining regional warlords across China chose to cooperate with the Nationalist government, but disagreements with the Nationalist government and regional warlords soon broke out into the in 1930. Northwest China erupted into a from 1931 to 1937. Following the in 1936, efforts began to shift toward preparation of . The warlords continued posing problems for the National Government up until the communist victory in 1949, when many turned on the KMT and defected to the CCP, such as Yunnanese warlord , whose troops had earlier been responsible for receiving the surrender of the Japanese in Hanoi and had engaged in widespread looting. Although Chiang was generally not considered personally corrupt, his power was dependent on balancing between the various warlords. Although he understood and expressed hatred at the fact that KMT corruption was driving the public to the communists, he continued dealing with warlords, tolerating incompetence and corruption while undermining subordinates who became too strong so as to preserve unity. After the Japanese surrender, warlords turned against the KMT. References Category:China